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1. The changing UK population

Specification point 1 · Key question: How have communities developed in the UK?

Change & ContinuityDiversity & InclusionIdentity & Belonging

You need to know

How the make-up of the UK population is changing in terms of age, ethnicity, religion and disability.

The census counts everyone in the country every ten years. The 2021 Census for England and Wales shows a population that is growing, getting older and becoming more diverse. Click any highlighted Key Term for a flashcard.

Feature	What the 2021 Census showed (England and Wales)	Why it matters
Age	18.6% of people were aged 65 or over: more older people than ever before.	An ageing population needs more healthcare, social care and pensions, paid for by a smaller share of working-age taxpayers.
Ethnicity	81.7% identified as White (86.0% in 2011). 9.3% Asian, 4.0% Black, 2.9% Mixed, 2.1% Other.	The UK is more diverse. Cities are more diverse than rural areas, and London is the most diverse region.
Religion	46.2% Christian (59.3% in 2011): under half for the first time. 37.2% said they had no religion. 6.5% Muslim.	Society is becoming more secular and more religiously mixed at the same time.
Disability	17.7% of people in England and 21.1% in Wales were disabled, using the Equality Act definition.	Employers, schools and public services must make reasonable adjustments so disabled people are not disadvantaged.

Why is the population changing?

People are living longer because of better healthcare, diet and living standards.
Birth rates have fallen, so there are fewer young people compared with older people.
Net migration has added to the population and made it more diverse (see section 2).

Common mistake These figures are for England and Wales. Scotland and Northern Ireland run their own censuses. In an answer, write "the 2021 Census for England and Wales".

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Which four features of the changing population does the specification name?

2. In the 2021 Census for England and Wales, people describing themselves as Christian were:

3. An ageing population is most likely to increase demand for:

2. Migration and its impact

Specification point 2 · Key question: How have communities developed in the UK?

Change & ContinuityDiversity & InclusionConflict & Cooperation

You need to know

The social, economic and other effects of immigration, and why it is seen as both a benefit and a challenge.
The types of migrant: economic migrants, refugees and asylum seekers. The reasons people migrate.
The sources of migration from 1945 to today, including Commonwealth countries and Europe.

Immigration is people moving into a country to live. Emigration is people leaving. Net migration is the difference between the two.

Types of migrant

Type	Meaning	Example
Economic migrant	Moves to find work or a better standard of living.	A nurse recruited from the Philippines to work in the NHS.
Refugee	Has fled war or persecution and has been given protection by another country.	A family from Syria resettled in the UK.
Asylum seeker	Has asked for protection as a refugee and is waiting for a decision.	Someone who has made an asylum claim. They cannot normally work while they wait.

Why do people migrate?

Push factors drive people away from a country: war, persecution, poverty, unemployment, natural disasters.
Pull factors attract people to a country: jobs and higher wages, safety, family already there, education, the English language. See Push and pull factors.

Sources of migration since 1945

1948: The British Nationality Act gives people from Commonwealth countries the right to live and work in the UK. The Empire Windrush arrives from the Caribbean: the start of the Windrush generation.
1950s and 60s: Workers arrive from the Caribbean, India and Pakistan to fill labour shortages in the NHS, public transport and factories.
1962 onwards: Commonwealth Immigrants Acts restrict the right to settle.
1972: Asians expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin. About 28,000 come to the UK.
1973: The UK joins the European Economic Community (EEC), which later becomes the European Union. Citizens of member countries gain freedom of movement.
2004: Eight Central and Eastern European countries, including Poland, join the EU. Many people move to the UK to work.
2020: The UK leaves the EU. Freedom of movement ends on 31 December 2020 and a points-based system applies to EU and non-EU citizens alike.
2021 and 2022: New routes open for people from Hong Kong, Afghanistan and Ukraine.

Benefit and challenge

Effect	Why it is seen as a benefit	Why it is seen as a challenge
Economic	Fills skills shortages (NHS, care, construction, farming). Migrants pay tax and start businesses.	Extra demand for housing, school places and GP appointments in areas where numbers rise quickly. Some argue it holds down pay in low-paid work.
Social and cultural	Food, music, sport, languages and festivals enrich a more diverse society.	Integration can be slow. Language barriers, prejudice and xenophobia can cause tension.
Other	Younger workers help to support an ageing population.	Migration is a divisive political issue, and sudden change makes services hard to plan.

Exam tip When a question says "benefit and challenge", give both sides with a precise example for each, then say which you find more convincing and why.

Common mistake An asylum seeker and a refugee are not the same. An asylum seeker is still waiting for a decision. The right to seek asylum is set out in Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. A person who has applied for protection and is waiting for a decision is:

2. Which of these is a pull factor?

3. The Windrush generation came mainly from:

4. After which event did many Polish workers move to the UK?

3. Respect and understanding

Specification point 3 · Key question: How have communities developed in the UK?

Diversity & InclusionJustice & FairnessRights & Responsibilities

You need to know

What mutual respect means in practice and why it is needed in a diverse society.
The effects of inequality and discrimination on individuals, groups and communities.
The role of the Equality Act 2010 in preventing discrimination.
How mutual understanding is encouraged in schools and the wider community.
The concepts of diversity, integration and community cohesion.

Mutual respect means treating other people as you would want to be treated, including people whose background or beliefs differ from yours. It goes with tolerance. A diverse society needs both so that people can live together peacefully and everyone can take part.

Prejudice and discrimination

Prejudice is an attitude: judging someone before you know them, often from a stereotype.
Discrimination is an action: treating someone worse because of who they are.

Who is affected	Effects of inequality and discrimination
Individuals	Lower confidence and worse mental health. Lost chances in education and work.
Groups	Lower pay and fewer people in senior jobs. Less trust in the police, employers and government.
Communities	Tension between groups, people living separate lives, hate crime, weaker community cohesion.

The Equality Act 2010

The Equality Act 2010 replaced earlier laws on race, sex and disability with a single Act. It makes discrimination unlawful at work, in education, when buying goods and services and when using public services.

It protects nine protected characteristics: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation.
It bans direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment and victimisation.
Employers and service providers must make reasonable adjustments for disabled people, such as a ramp or extra time.
Public bodies such as schools and councils have a duty to promote equality.
People can take a case to a court or employment tribunal. The Equality and Human Rights Commission enforces the Act.

How is mutual understanding encouraged?

In schools	In the wider community
Citizenship and RE lessons. Assemblies that mark different festivals. School councils. Anti-bullying policies. Black History Month. Teaching British values.	Interfaith events. Community centres and festivals such as the Notting Hill Carnival. Sports and youth clubs. Volunteering. Council projects that bring groups together.

Three concepts to use in answers

Diversity: the range of different people and cultures in a society.
Integration: joining in with wider society while keeping your own culture. Compare Assimilation, where the original culture is given up.
Community cohesion: people from different backgrounds getting on well and sharing a sense of belonging. See also Multiculturalism.

Common mistake Prejudice is what someone thinks. Discrimination is what someone does. The Equality Act deals with discrimination.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. How many protected characteristics are there in the Equality Act 2010?

2. Which of these is NOT a protected characteristic?

3. A shop bans all head coverings for staff, which disadvantages Sikh and Muslim employees. This is most likely:

4. Keeping your own culture while taking a full part in wider society is called:

4. Identity

Specification point 4 · Key question: What is identity?

Identity & BelongingDiversity & InclusionChange & Continuity

You need to know

Identities can be defined in many ways: ethnic, religious, gender, age, social, cultural, national, local, regional.
The concept of multiple identities.
How the UK being made up of England, Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland affects debates about identity.

Identity is how you see yourself and how others see you. Nobody has just one.

Type of identity	Example
Ethnic	British Asian, Black Caribbean, White Irish
Religious	Muslim, Christian, Jewish, humanist
Gender	Woman, man, non-binary
Age	Teenager, pensioner
Social	Student, parent, trade union member, working class
Cultural	The music, food, language and traditions you share with others
National	British, Scottish, Welsh, Irish, English
Regional	Northerner, Cornish, Londoner
Local	Your town, estate, school or football club

People hold multiple identities at once, and which one matters most changes with the situation. Someone with roots in two countries or cultures may describe a dual identity, such as British Pakistani.

Four nations, one state

The United Kingdom is England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Great Britain is England, Scotland and Wales only.

1707: Act of Union joins England (with Wales) and Scotland as Great Britain.
1801: Union with Ireland creates the United Kingdom.
1922: Most of Ireland leaves the UK. Northern Ireland stays.
1998 and 1999: Devolution: the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly (now the Senedd) and the Northern Ireland Assembly are set up.
2014: Scotland votes 55% to 45% to stay in the UK.
2016: EU referendum: England and Wales vote Leave, Scotland (62%) and Northern Ireland (56%) vote Remain.

How this affects identity debates

Many people feel Scottish, Welsh, Irish or English first and British second, or not British at all.
Nationalism: parties such as the SNP and Plaid Cymru campaign for independence. Supporters say it reflects national identity. Opponents say a shared British identity holds the UK together.
In Northern Ireland, identity is contested between unionists (British) and nationalists (Irish). The Good Friday Agreement 1998 lets people identify as British, Irish or both.
Wales protects its identity through the Welsh language in schools, road signs and public services.
England has no parliament of its own, which raises the question of what English identity means.
British values are an attempt to describe what people across the UK share.

Common mistake Do not write "England" when you mean the UK, or "Great Britain" when you mean the UK. Examiners notice.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Which countries make up Great Britain?

2. "Being a Geordie" is an example of which type of identity?

3. In the 2014 referendum, Scotland voted to:

4. A person who is a student, a Muslim, Welsh and British is showing:

5. Rights, duties and values

Specification point 5 · Key question: What are democratic values and where do they come from?

Rights & ResponsibilitiesJustice & FairnessPower & Authority

You need to know

Human, moral, legal and political rights and freedoms in the UK: equality and representation; freedom of speech, opinion and association; tolerance and respect; privacy.
The duties of citizens to respect the rights and freedoms of others and to obey the law.
How rights can conflict and need to be balanced, in life and at work.
Why the rule of law is necessary in a democracy.
The checks and balances on rights and freedoms, including debates about freedom of speech, privacy and the threat from terrorism.

Four types of right

Type	Meaning	Example
Human rights	Belong to everyone, everywhere, because they are human.	The right to life. Freedom from torture.
Moral rights	What people believe is fair and right. Not always written into law.	Being told the truth. Being treated with respect.
Legal rights	Written into law and enforced by the courts.	The minimum wage. A refund for faulty goods.
Political rights	Let you take part in how the country is run.	Voting, standing for election, joining a party, peaceful protest.

The freedoms named in the specification are equality and representation, freedom of speech, opinion and association, tolerance and respect, and privacy.

Duties

Every right comes with responsibilities. Citizens have a duty to respect the rights and freedoms of others and to obey the law. Other duties include paying tax and serving on a jury if called.

When rights conflict

One right	against another	How it is balanced
Freedom of speech	Protection from hatred and from lies about you	Laws against stirring up hatred and against defamation (libel and slander).
Freedom of the press	The right to privacy	Courts weigh the public interest against the harm to the person.
The right to protest	Other people's right to get on with their lives	The police can set conditions on marches and protests.
An employer running a business	An employee's rights at work	Employment law, contracts, trade unions and employment tribunals.

Rights in life and at work

Employees have a right to a written contract, at least the National Minimum Wage, a safe workplace (Health and Safety at Work Act 1974), paid holiday and freedom from discrimination. Their duties are to do the work and follow reasonable instructions.
Employers have a right to expect the work to be done and duties to pay fairly and keep staff safe.
Consumers are protected by the Consumer Rights Act 2015: goods must be of satisfactory quality, fit for purpose and as described. Trading Standards and Citizens Advice help to enforce this.

The rule of law

The rule of law means the law applies equally to everyone, including the government. It is necessary in a democracy because it:

stops those in power from acting unfairly or beyond their powers
gives everyone the right to a fair trial and to be treated as innocent until proven guilty
makes rights enforceable, because independent judges can uphold them
lets disputes be settled peacefully in court

Checks and balances on rights

Most rights are not unlimited. A qualified right can be restricted by law to protect national security, public safety or the rights of others, as long as the limit is necessary and proportionate. Parliament makes the laws, courts can review how the government uses them, and the media and pressure groups scrutinise both. These are checks and balances.

Debate	The case for protecting the right	The case for limiting it
Freedom of speech	Democracy needs people to criticise those in power and to hear all views.	Hate speech, threats and deliberate lies harm others. The Public Order Act 1986 bans stirring up racial hatred and the Online Safety Act 2023 regulates harmful content online.
Privacy	People should not be watched by the state without good reason. Mass data collection can be misused.	The Investigatory Powers Act 2016 lets the security services collect communications data, with warrants, to detect serious crime and terrorism.
The threat from terrorism	Limits such as detention without charge and surveillance can affect innocent people and particular communities.	The first duty of government is to keep people safe. Under the Terrorism Act 2000, suspects can be held for up to 14 days before charge.

Common mistake Do not write that human rights "can never be taken away". A few are absolute, such as freedom from torture. Most can be limited by law for a good reason.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. The right to vote is an example of a:

2. Which of these is a duty of every citizen?

3. The rule of law means that:

4. A newspaper wants to publish a story about a celebrity’s private life. Which two rights conflict?

5. A qualified right is one that:

6. Development of human rights

Specification point 6 · Key question: What are democratic values and where do they come from?

Rights & ResponsibilitiesJustice & FairnessChange & Continuity

You need to know

Magna Carta as a first step against arbitrary rule and a guarantee of justice.
The rights and freedoms protected by the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Human Rights Act 1998.

Document	Who made it and when	Legal force	Rights it protects
Magna Carta	Forced on King John by his barons in 1215.	A written limit on the power of the king.	No free man to be imprisoned except by the lawful judgement of his equals or the law of the land. Justice not to be sold, denied or delayed.
UDHR	The United Nations in 1948, after the Second World War and the Holocaust.	A Declaration: a statement of aims. Not legally binding.	30 articles, including life, liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, education and the right to seek asylum.
ECHR	The Council of Europe. Signed in 1950, in force from 1953.	A Convention: legally binding on the countries that signed. Enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.	Life, freedom from torture, liberty, a fair trial, private and family life, freedom of religion, expression and assembly.
UNCRC	The United Nations in 1989. The UK ratified it in 1991.	A Convention. Governments report to a UN committee on how well they are meeting it.	54 articles for everyone under 18: education, protection from harm, play, and the right to be heard in decisions that affect them.
The Human Rights Act 1998	The UK Parliament. In force from 2000.	An Act of Parliament: UK law, used in UK courts.	Brings the ECHR rights into UK law. Public bodies such as the police, schools and councils must respect them.

Why Magna Carta matters

It was a first step against arbitrary rule: the king could no longer do whatever he liked.
It guaranteed justice: lawful judgement before punishment is the root of trial by jury and of the rule of law.
Its limit: in 1215 it protected barons and free men, not ordinary people. Its importance is the principle it set.

Human Rights Act articles worth learning

Article 2: the right to life
Article 3: freedom from torture
Article 5: liberty
Article 6: a fair trial
Article 8: respect for private and family life
Article 9: freedom of thought and religion
Article 10: freedom of expression
Article 11: freedom of assembly and association
Article 14: no discrimination in how these rights are applied

If a law conflicts with these rights, a court can make a declaration of incompatibility. It cannot cancel the law: Parliament decides whether to change it.

Common mistake The ECHR comes from the Council of Europe, not the European Union. Leaving the EU did not take the UK out of the ECHR.

Common mistake The Human Rights Act did not invent new rights. It let people use their ECHR rights in UK courts instead of going to Strasbourg.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Which of these is NOT legally binding?

2. The European Convention on Human Rights was created by:

3. The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child covers everyone under the age of:

4. What did the Human Rights Act 1998 do?

5. Magna Carta is important because it established that:

7. Citizens and local government

Specification point 7 · Key question: How does local democracy work?

Participation & RepresentationPower & AuthorityRights & Responsibilities

You need to know

The difference between councillors and officers.
The role of local councils in representing the community.
The services that local councils typically provide.

A local council is the elected body that runs local services for a town, city, district or county.

	Councillors	Officers
How they get the job	Elected by local residents, usually for four years.	Appointed on merit, like any other employee.
Politics	Usually stand for a political party.	Must be politically neutral.
What they do	Decide policy, set the budget and the council tax, and speak up for the people in their ward.	Advise councillors and carry out their decisions. They run the services day to day.
Accountable to	Voters, at the next election.	The council. The most senior officer is the chief executive.

See the flashcards for Councillor and Council officer.

Representing the community

Councillors hold surgeries, answer emails and take up problems for residents.
They debate and vote at council meetings, which the public can attend.
Most councils are led by a leader and cabinet. Some areas have a directly elected mayor.
Councils consult residents on plans, and scrutiny committees check the decisions that have been made.
Citizens can take part by voting in local elections, contacting a councillor, signing a petition, replying to a consultation or standing for election.

Services councils typically provide

Area	Examples
Education	School places, school transport, support for special educational needs
Social care	Care for older and disabled adults, child protection, fostering
Housing and planning	Council housing, help for homeless people, planning applications
Environment	Bin collection and recycling, street cleaning, parks
Roads and transport	Road repairs, street lighting, parking
Leisure and culture	Libraries, leisure centres, museums
Protection	Environmental health (food hygiene inspections), Trading Standards, licensing

Some areas have two tiers, a county council and a district council, that share these services. Others have a single unitary council that provides them all.

Common mistake Councils do not run NHS hospitals or the armed forces, and they do not set income tax. Do not confuse a councillor (local council) with an MP (Parliament).

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Who must be politically neutral?

2. Councillors are accountable to:

3. Which of these is a service a local council typically provides?

4. Who carries out the decisions a council makes?

8. Paying for local services

Specification point 8 · Key question: How does local democracy work?

Power & AuthorityJustice & FairnessRights & Responsibilities

You need to know

How councils are funded through council tax, business rates, government grants and income from charges.

Source	Who pays	How it works
Council Tax	Households	Based on the value band of the home (A to H in England). Councillors set the level each year.
Business Rates	Shops, offices and factories	A tax on business property. Central government sets the rate and councils collect it.
Government grants	Central government, from national taxes	Some grants are ring-fenced: they must be spent on one thing, such as schools. Others can be spent as the council chooses.
Income from charges	People who use a service	Parking, leisure centres, planning applications, garden waste collection.

Why this is debated

Councils must by law set a balanced budget: they cannot plan to spend more than their income.
Demand is rising, above all for social care as the population ages (see section 1).
When grants from central government are cut, councils rely more on council tax and charges, or cut services.
A council that wants to raise council tax above a limit set by the government must hold a local referendum.
Critics say council tax is unfair because the bands are based on old property values and it takes a bigger share of income from poorer households.
A council that cannot balance its budget must stop new spending. Birmingham City Council did this in 2023.

Exam tip If asked how a council could deal with a funding gap, give options from both sides: raise income (council tax, charges) or cut spending (reduce or close services). Then explain who would be affected.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Which of these is NOT one of the four sources of council funding in the specification?

2. Who pays business rates?

3. A ring-fenced grant is one that:

4. Paying to use a council car park is an example of:

9. Exam practice

Theme A is tested in Section A of Paper 1, which is worth 16 marks: multiple-choice and short-answer questions, ending with a 6-mark question. Theme A can also be used in the longer questions in Section D. Type your answer first, then compare it with the model.

1 and 2-mark questions: recall

1. State two ways in which the population of the UK is changing. (2 marks)

2. Define the term "asylum seeker". (1 mark)

3. Name two protected characteristics in the Equality Act 2010. (2 marks)

4. Give two duties that citizens have. (2 marks)

5. Which document did the Human Rights Act 1998 bring into UK law? (1 mark)

6. State one difference between a councillor and a council officer. (1 mark)

7. State two sources of funding for local councils. (2 marks)

4-mark questions: explain

1. Explain two reasons why people migrate to the UK. (4 marks)

2. Explain two ways in which mutual understanding is encouraged in schools. (4 marks)

3. Explain two ways in which the UK being made up of four nations affects debates about identity. (4 marks)

4. Explain why the rule of law is necessary in a democracy. (4 marks)

5. Explain two differences between the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. (4 marks)

6. Explain two ways in which a local council represents its community. (4 marks)

6-mark source question and 15-mark essay

1. Source A. Eastfield is a town of 90,000 people. Over the last ten years, about 6,000 people have moved there from other countries, many to work in its food-processing factories and care homes. The local hospital says it could not staff its wards without them. New shops and restaurants have opened on the high street. The council reports that three primary schools are full and that rents have risen. A community group has set up a weekly event where long-term residents and new arrivals share food and practise English.

Using Source A and your own knowledge, explain why migration can be both a benefit and a challenge for a community. (6 marks)

2. "Limiting people's rights is justified if it protects the public from terrorism." How far do you agree? (15 marks)

3. "Council tax is an unfair way to pay for local services." How far do you agree? (15 marks)

Party	Broad philosophy	What this usually means
Conservative	Centre-right	Free markets, lower taxes, a smaller role for the state, tradition, strong defence.
Labour	Centre-left	Well-funded public services, workers' rights, a larger role for the state in reducing inequality.
Liberal Democrats	Centre	Individual freedom and civil liberties, close international cooperation, reform of the voting system.
Reform UK	Right	Much lower immigration, lower taxes, less regulation.
Green Party	Left	Protecting the environment, tackling climate change, higher taxes on wealth.
SNP and Plaid Cymru	Nationalist, centre-left	Independence for Scotland (SNP) and for Wales (Plaid Cymru).

	Representative democracy	Direct democracy
How it works	Citizens elect representatives, such as MPs, to decide for them. See Representative Democracy.	Citizens vote on an issue themselves in a referendum. See Direct Democracy.
Example	A general election.	The 2016 referendum on EU membership.
Strengths	Representatives have time and expertise. They can be voted out. Practical for a large country.	Everyone has a say on that issue. The result has clear legitimacy.
Weaknesses	MPs may follow their party, not their voters. Voters have a say only every few years.	Complex issues are reduced to yes or no. Campaigns can mislead. Turnout may be low.

Can vote	Cannot vote
People aged 18 or over who are registered and are British, Irish or qualifying Commonwealth citizens. Voters must show photo ID at the polling station.	Under-18s. Members of the House of Lords. Prisoners serving a sentence. People convicted of electoral fraud in the last five years. Most foreign citizens, including EU citizens.

	First past the post	Proportional representation
Strengths	Simple and quick. One local MP for each area. Usually gives one party a majority, so government is stable.	Seats match votes, so few votes are wasted. Smaller parties are fairly represented.
Weaknesses	Seats do not match votes. Many votes are wasted in safe seats. Smaller parties lose out.	Often produces coalitions. The link between one MP and one area is weaker. Counting is more complicated.

Part	What it is	Example
Departments and ministries	Each covers one area of policy and is led by a minister.	The Home Office, the Treasury, the Department for Education.
Agencies	Carry out particular services on behalf of a department.	The DVLA. HM Prison and Probation Service.
Civil servants	Permanent, politically neutral staff appointed on merit. They advise ministers and carry out policy, whichever party is in power.	A policy adviser in the Department of Health and Social Care.

Part of the state	Who	Job
Executive	The government: Prime Minister, cabinet and ministers	Runs the country and proposes new laws.
Legislature	Parliament: the Commons and the Lords	Debates and passes laws. Checks the government.
Judiciary	Judges and the courts	Interpret and apply the law. Independent of the other two.
Monarchy	The King	Head of state. A ceremonial role: see Constitutional Monarchy.

	House of Commons	House of Lords
Members	650 MPs, elected.	Unelected. Life peers appointed for their experience, and 26 Church of England bishops. The last hereditary peers were removed by an Act passed in 2026.
Role	Makes laws, approves taxes and spending, holds the government to account.	Revises and scrutinises bills, using members' expertise.
Power	Has the final say.	Can delay most bills for about a year, but cannot block them. Cannot block money bills.

Role	What they do
Prime Minister	Leads the government, chooses the cabinet, answers Prime Minister's Questions every Wednesday.
Cabinet and ministers	Run departments and decide government policy together.
The Opposition	The largest party not in government. It challenges the government and offers alternative policies. Its leading members form the Shadow Cabinet.
The Speaker	An MP who chairs debates in the Commons, keeps order and must be politically impartial.
Whips	MPs who make sure their party's MPs attend and vote with the party.
Front bench MPs	Ministers and shadow ministers, who sit on the front rows.
Backbench MPs	MPs with no ministerial or shadow post. They can question ministers and sit on committees.
Black Rod	An official of the House of Lords. At the State Opening, the Commons door is shut in Black Rod's face to show that the Commons is independent of the monarch.

Institution	Role in the constitution
Government, Prime Minister and cabinet	Hold executive power: run the country and propose laws.
Legislature	Parliament makes law and scrutinises the government.
Opposition	Challenges the government and is ready to replace it.
Political parties	Offer voters a choice of policies and leaders.
Monarch	Head of state. Appoints the Prime Minister, opens Parliament and gives royal assent, always on advice.
Citizens	Vote, stand for election, campaign and serve on juries.
Judiciary	Independent judges apply the law and can rule that the government has acted unlawfully.
Police	Enforce the law. They are independent of politicians in deciding whom to investigate.
Civil service	Neutral officials who advise ministers and carry out their decisions.

Nation	Devolved body	Examples of devolved powers
Scotland	Scottish Parliament, Edinburgh	Health, education, justice and policing, transport, some income tax rates.
Wales	Senedd, Cardiff	Health, education, transport, the Welsh language, some taxes.
Northern Ireland	Northern Ireland Assembly, Stormont	Health, education, justice. Power must be shared between unionist and nationalist parties.
Reserved to Westminster	UK Parliament	Defence, foreign policy, immigration, the constitution.

View	Arguments
For devolution	Decisions are made closer to the people they affect and can reflect different national priorities.
For independence	A nation should govern itself completely and should not be outvoted by England.
For the union	The nations are stronger together in the economy and defence. Different rules in each nation can be unfair and confusing.

Type	Meaning	Examples
Direct tax	Taken directly from what a person or business earns.	Income tax, National Insurance, corporation tax on company profits.
Indirect tax	Added to the price of things people buy.	VAT, fuel duty, duties on alcohol and tobacco.

Area	The debate
Welfare	Benefits and the state pension protect people from poverty. Critics say the cost is too high and that support should do more to encourage work.
Health	The NHS is funded from tax and free when you use it. Some argue that private providers or insurance could cut waiting times. Others say this would create a two-tier system.
Care of the elderly	As the population ages, costs are rising. Should the state pay for care, or should people use their savings and the value of their homes?
Education	State schools are free, but university students pay tuition fees. Should those who benefit pay, or should all education be funded from tax?

Why laws are needed	Example
To protect the public	Laws against assault and theft. Speed limits.
To settle disputes	Contract law decides who is right when a builder and a customer disagree.
To ensure fair treatment	The Equality Act 2010 makes discrimination unlawful.
To achieve justice	Offenders are punished and victims can be compensated.
To change behaviour	Wearing seat belts became compulsory in 1983. Smoking in enclosed public places was banned in 2007.
To respond to new situations	New technology: the Online Safety Act 2023. Changing values: same-sex couples have been able to marry since 2014.

Age	What the law allows or requires
10	The age of criminal responsibility in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. It is 12 in Scotland.
13	Part-time work, with limits on hours and types of job.
16	Leave school and work full time, though in England you must stay in education or training until 18. Join the armed forces with a parent's consent.
17	Drive a car.
18	Vote in a general election. Marry in England and Wales (16 in Scotland). Serve on a jury. Buy alcohol.

Principle	Meaning
Rule of law	The law applies to everyone, including the government.
Presumption of innocence	A person is innocent until proven guilty. The prosecution must prove the case.
Equality before the law	Everyone is treated the same by the courts, whatever their wealth or status.
Access to justice	Everyone must be able to use the courts. Legal aid helps people who cannot afford a lawyer.

	Criminal law	Civil law
Purpose	To protect the public from harm and punish offenders.	To settle disputes between individuals or organisations.
Examples	Crimes against a person (assault, murder) or property (theft, burglary).	Debt, personal injury, family matters such as divorce.
Who brings the case	The state. The Crown Prosecution Service prosecutes the defendant.	The person with the complaint (the claimant) sues the defendant.
Standard of proof	Beyond reasonable doubt.	On the balance of probabilities.
Outcome	Guilty or not guilty. A sentence such as prison, a community order or a fine.	Liable or not liable. Usually compensation (damages) or a court order.
Courts	Magistrates' court, Crown Court.	County Court, High Court, tribunals.

Who	Role	Powers
Police	Prevent and investigate crime, keep order, protect the public.	Stop and search with reasonable grounds, arrest, enter premises with a warrant, hold a suspect for questioning, usually for up to 24 hours before charge.
Judges	Legally qualified and paid. In the Crown Court a judge runs the trial and advises the jury on the law.	Pass sentence. In civil cases, decide who is liable and award damages.
Magistrates	Trained volunteers from the community, usually sitting in threes with a legal adviser.	Decide the verdict and the sentence in less serious criminal cases.
Legal representatives	Solicitors advise clients and prepare cases. Barristers present cases in the higher courts.	They speak for their client. The Crown Prosecution Service acts for the state.

	Magistrates' court	Crown Court
Cases	Less serious offences, such as most motoring offences and minor assaults. All criminal cases start here.	Serious offences, such as murder, rape and robbery. Also appeals from the magistrates' court.
Who decides	Three magistrates or one district judge. No jury.	A jury decides the verdict. A judge decides the sentence.
Sentencing	Limited powers: up to 12 months in prison for one offence at the time of writing. More serious cases are sent to the Crown Court.	Any sentence up to the maximum for the offence, including life.
Style	Quicker and less formal.	Formal, with barristers in wigs and gowns.

In a youth court	Why
Cases are heard by specially trained magistrates or a district judge. There is no jury.	They understand the needs of young people.
It is less formal. Everyone sits on the same level, first names are used and nobody wears a wig.	So the young person understands what is happening and can take part.
The public cannot attend, and the media cannot name the young person.	To protect their future and avoid labelling them as a criminal.
A parent or guardian must attend if the young person is under 16.	To support them and involve the family.
Sentences focus on rehabilitation, such as a referral order or a youth rehabilitation order. Custody is a last resort.	Young people are more likely than adults to change, and prison can make reoffending more likely.

Measure	How it works	Issue
Police recorded crime	Crimes reported to and recorded by the police.	Many crimes are never reported, and recording rules change over time.
Crime Survey for England and Wales	A large survey asking people about crimes they have experienced.	Includes unreported crime, but misses crimes against businesses and some offences such as murder.

Strategy	Examples
Prevention	Youth clubs, education, early help for families, drug treatment, rehabilitation programmes.
Protection	CCTV, street lighting, neighbourhood watch, visible police patrols, better locks.
Punishment	Prison, community sentences and fines that act as a deterrent.

Sentence	What it involves
Prison	A custodial sentence for the most serious offences. A suspended sentence is served in the community unless the offender breaks its conditions. Since March 2026 courts are expected to suspend sentences of 12 months or less unless there are exceptional circumstances.
Community sentence	Can include Community Payback (40 to 300 hours of unpaid work), a curfew with an electronic tag, or treatment for addiction.
Restorative justice	The offender meets or communicates with the victim to understand the harm done and make amends.
Fine or discharge	A fine is the most common sentence. A discharge means no punishment unless the person offends again.

Sentence	Arguments for	Arguments against
Prison	Protects the public and punishes serious crime.	Expensive and overcrowded. Many people reoffend after short sentences.
Community payback	Cheaper. Offenders keep their job and family ties and repay the community.	Seen by some as a soft option.
Restorative justice	Gives victims a voice and makes offenders face what they did.	Only works if both sides agree. Not suitable for every offence.

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1. Citizen participation in politics and society

Specification point 1 · Key question: What power and influence can citizens have?

Participation & RepresentationPower & AuthorityRights & Responsibilities

You need to know

The opportunities for citizens to take part in democracy, and the barriers that stop them.
How digital democracy, social media and other measures are being developed to improve voter engagement and participation.
The actions citizens can take to hold those in power to account and contribute to public life.
How citizens can and cannot take part in one democratic and one non-democratic political system outside the UK.

Opportunities to take part	Barriers to taking part
Voting in elections and referendums.	Not being old enough, or not being registered to vote.
Joining a political party or standing for election.	Lack of interest or trust in politicians (political apathy).
Joining a pressure group or signing a petition.	Lack of knowledge about how the system works.
Contacting or lobbying an MP or councillor.	Lack of time, money or confidence.
Demonstrating, campaigning or volunteering.	Disability, language or access problems. Feeling that one vote changes nothing in a safe seat.

Improving participation

Digital democracy: registering to vote online, and e-petitions on the Parliament website. At 10,000 signatures the government must respond. At 100,000 the petition is considered for a debate.
Social media: MPs, parties and campaigners reach voters directly, especially young people.
Citizenship education in schools.
Ideas that are debated: votes at 16, online voting, automatic voter registration, weekend voting, and compulsory voting as in Australia.

Common mistake Not every change makes voting easier. Since 2023 voters in Great Britain have had to show photo ID at polling stations for general elections. Supporters say it prevents fraud. Critics say it is a barrier.

Holding those in power to account

Indirect action	Direct action
Working through the system to persuade decision-makers.	Acting yourself to force attention or change.
Voting, petitions, lobbying, writing to an MP, leafleting, using the media.	Demonstrations, strikes, boycotts, sit-ins, civil disobedience.
Legal and low risk, but easy to ignore.	Gets attention quickly, but may break the law or lose public support.

Participation outside the UK

	Switzerland (democratic)	China (non-democratic)
Elections	Free elections with many parties.	A one-party state. The Communist Party holds power and citizens do not elect the national leaders.
Direct say	Citizens vote in referendums several times a year. 100,000 signatures can force a national vote on changing the constitution.	No national referendums. Citizens cannot vote to change the government.
Protest and groups	Free to protest, join pressure groups and form trade unions.	Protest is tightly controlled. Independent trade unions and opposition parties are not allowed.
Media	A free press that can criticise the government.	The state censors the media and blocks many foreign websites.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. How many signatures does a Parliament e-petition need to be considered for a debate?

2. Which of these is an example of direct action?

3. Which of these is a barrier to participation?

4. In Switzerland, citizens can:

2. The role of groups and organisations in democratic society

Specification point 2 · Key question: What power and influence can citizens have?

Participation & RepresentationConflict & CooperationJustice & Fairness

You need to know

The roles of public institutions, public services, interest and pressure groups, trade unions, charities and voluntary groups in giving people a voice and support.
Two examples of citizens working together to change public policy, challenge injustice or resolve a local issue.
The origins and role of trade unions, and the role of staff associations and tribunals in protecting rights at work.

Group	Role	Example
Public institutions and public services	Funded by taxes to serve everyone.	The NHS, state schools, the police, council libraries.
Pressure groups and interest groups	Campaign to influence government policy without seeking election.	Insider groups such as the British Medical Association are consulted by government. Outsider groups such as Greenpeace rely on publicity.
Trade unions	Represent workers on pay, conditions and safety.	The National Education Union, UNISON.
Charities	Raise money and provide help for those in need. Many also campaign.	Shelter, the RSPCA, Oxfam.
Voluntary groups	Run by volunteers to meet a local need.	A food bank, a youth football club, a residents' association.

Citizens working together: examples to learn

Changing public policy: the Living Wage campaign. In 2001 parents, faith groups and trade unions in east London, working through Citizens UK, began to campaign for pay that covers the real cost of living. They held public meetings and negotiated with employers. Thousands of employers now pay the voluntary Real Living Wage.
Challenging injustice: the sub-postmasters. Hundreds of people who ran Post Office branches were wrongly prosecuted because of faults in the Horizon computer system. They formed a campaign group in 2009, won a High Court case in 2019 and kept the story in the media. In 2024 Parliament passed a law to cancel their convictions.
Resolving a local issue. Residents who form a group to save a library from closure, or to get a crossing built outside a school, use the same methods on a small scale: research, petitions, meeting councillors and local media.

Trade unions: origins and role

1834: The Tolpuddle Martyrs, six Dorset farm workers, were transported to Australia for forming a union. Mass protest led to their pardon.
1868: The Trades Union Congress (TUC) was formed to bring unions together.
1871: The Trade Union Act made unions legal.
1900: Unions helped to found the Labour Party to represent workers in Parliament.

Collective bargaining: negotiating pay and conditions for all members at once.
Advising and representing members in disputes and disciplinary hearings.
Campaigning for better laws, such as health and safety rules.
Organising industrial action, such as a strike, as a last resort. Members must vote for it in a ballot.

Other protection at work

A staff association represents employees in one organisation. The Police Federation is an example: police officers are not allowed to strike.
An employment tribunal decides claims such as unfair dismissal, discrimination and unpaid wages. ACAS tries to settle the dispute first.
Legal rights at work include a contract of employment, the National Minimum Wage and National Living Wage, paid holiday and protection from discrimination.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. An insider pressure group is one that:

2. The Tolpuddle Martyrs are linked to the origins of:

3. Which body decides a claim of unfair dismissal?

4. Collective bargaining means:

3. The role of the media and a free press

Specification point 3 · Key question: What role and influence should the media have?

Power & AuthorityRights & ResponsibilitiesParticipation & Representation

You need to know

The role of the media in informing and influencing public opinion.
The media as a forum for the exchange of ideas and opinions.
The media's role in holding those in power to account.

The media includes traditional media (newspapers, television, radio) and new media (websites, podcasts, social media). Freedom of the press means journalists can report and criticise without government control.

Role	What it means
Informing	Reporting news so that citizens can make informed choices, for example at elections.
Influencing	Shaping opinion through what is covered and how. Newspapers can support a party. Broadcasters must be impartial.
A forum for debate	Letters pages, phone-ins, comment sections and televised debates let people exchange views.
Holding power to account	Investigating and exposing wrongdoing. The press is sometimes called the "fourth estate" or a watchdog.

Examples of the media holding power to account

Story	What the media did	Result
MPs' expenses, 2009	The Daily Telegraph published details of MPs' expense claims.	MPs repaid money, several were jailed and an independent body now controls MPs' expenses.
Windrush, 2018	The Guardian reported that long-settled Commonwealth citizens were wrongly treated as illegal immigrants.	The Home Secretary resigned and a compensation scheme was set up.
Post Office Horizon	Journalists reported the story from 2009. A television drama in 2024 brought it to millions.	Parliament passed a law to cancel the convictions.
Partygate, 2021 to 2022	Newspapers and ITV News revealed gatherings in Downing Street during lockdown.	The Prime Minister was fined by the police, and the scandal contributed to his resignation.

Common mistake A free press is not the same as an unbiased press. Check who owns a source, and use fact-checking to test what you read, especially on social media.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Exposing the MPs' expenses scandal is an example of the media:

2. Which type of media must be impartial in its news coverage in the UK?

3. A newspaper letters page is an example of the media:

4. Rights and responsibilities of the media

Specification point 4 · Key question: What role and influence should the media have?

Rights & ResponsibilitiesJustice & FairnessPower & Authority

You need to know

The right of the media to investigate and report on issues of public interest.
The responsibility to be accurate and to respect people's privacy and dignity.
How press regulation works, and examples of where censorship is used.

Rights	Responsibilities
To investigate and report on matters of public interest.	To be accurate, and to correct mistakes.
To criticise the government and other powerful people.	To respect privacy and dignity, especially of children and people in grief.
To protect the identity of their sources.	To obey the law, for example on libel and on reporting court cases.

Common mistake "In the public interest" does not mean "interesting to the public". A story is in the public interest if people need to know it, for example because it exposes crime, danger or lies by those in power.

How the media is regulated

The phone-hacking scandal of 2011 showed that some journalists had broken the law to get stories. The Leveson Inquiry recommended tougher regulation.
IPSO has regulated most newspapers and magazines since 2014. It enforces the Editors' Code of Practice, and can order corrections and issue fines. It is run by the industry, and some papers have not joined.
Ofcom regulates television and radio by law. It can fine broadcasters or remove their licence, and it now also regulates online safety.

Where censorship is used

Censorship means stopping information from being published or broadcast.

National security: the media can be asked not to publish details that could endanger military operations.
Protecting children: film age ratings and the 9pm television watershed.
Fair trials and victims: the media cannot usually name defendants under 18 or victims of sexual offences.
Preventing harm: laws against inciting hatred or violence.
In non-democratic states censorship is used to silence criticism. China blocks many foreign news sites and social media platforms.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Which organisation regulates most UK newspapers?

2. A story is "in the public interest" if:

3. Not naming a 15-year-old defendant is an example of:

4. What led to the Leveson Inquiry?

5. The use of the media for influence

Specification point 5 · Key question: What role and influence should the media have?

Power & AuthorityParticipation & RepresentationConflict & Cooperation

You need to know

How groups use the media to try to influence public opinion.
How those in power use the media to try to influence public opinion.

Who	How they use the media
Politicians and government	Press conferences, interviews, televised leaders' debates, party election broadcasts, their own social media accounts, photo opportunities. Press officers and "spin doctors" manage the message. See spin.
Pressure groups and campaigners	Press releases, publicity stunts, celebrity support, hashtags and viral videos, e-petitions, paid adverts.
Businesses and wealthy individuals	Advertising, sponsorship, and owning newspapers or platforms.

Examples

Marcus Rashford, 2020. The footballer used social media and an open letter to MPs to campaign for free school meal vouchers in the holidays. The government changed its policy.
Publicity stunts. Groups such as Just Stop Oil have blocked roads and disrupted events to get news coverage. The coverage is huge, but it can turn the public against the cause.
Election campaigns. Parties target voters with online adverts, and newspapers tell readers which party they support.

Questions to ask about any media message

Who produced it, and what do they want me to think or do?
Is it fact or opinion? What has been left out?
Can I check it with another reliable source?
Am I seeing it because an algorithm thinks I already agree with it?

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Presenting information in a way designed to give the most favourable impression is called:

2. Marcus Rashford's free school meals campaign shows:

3. Why might a pressure group stage a publicity stunt?

6. The UK's role and relations with Europe

Specification point 6 · Key question: Does the UK have power and influence in the wider world?

Conflict & CooperationPower & AuthorityChange & Continuity

You need to know

The roles of the European Union and the Council of Europe, and how they differ.
How the UK's relationship with the EU has changed since it left, including migration, fishing, travel and trade.

	European Union	Council of Europe
What it is	A political and economic union of 27 countries.	A human rights organisation of 46 countries.
Main role	A single market with free movement of goods, services, money and people. Makes laws that apply in its member states.	Protects human rights, democracy and the rule of law. Created the European Convention on Human Rights.
Court	Court of Justice of the EU, in Luxembourg.	European Court of Human Rights, in Strasbourg.
The UK	Joined in 1973. Left on 31 January 2020.	A founding member in 1949. Still a member.

Common mistake Leaving the EU did not take the UK out of the European Convention on Human Rights. The Convention and its court belong to the Council of Europe, which is a separate organisation.

Brexit

2016: In a referendum, 52% voted to leave the EU and 48% voted to remain. See Brexit.
2020: The UK left the EU on 31 January.
2021: A new trade agreement between the UK and the EU took effect.
2025: The UK and the EU agreed to cooperate more closely on defence, food trade and fishing.

Area	What changed after the UK left
Migration	Freedom of movement ended. EU citizens moving to the UK now need a visa to work, under a points-based system. UK citizens need permission to live or work in EU countries.
Travel	UK citizens can visit most EU countries for up to 90 days in any 180 without a visa. Their fingerprints and photo are now recorded at the border.
Trade	The UK left the single market. Most goods can still be traded without tariffs, but there are customs checks and extra paperwork. The UK can make its own trade deals with other countries.
Fishing	The UK left the Common Fisheries Policy and controls its own waters. EU boats still have access under an agreement that runs until 2038.

Exam tip This area changes quickly. Before your exam, check a reliable news source for the latest UK and EU agreements.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Which organisation created the European Convention on Human Rights?

2. In which year did the UK leave the European Union?

3. Since Brexit, an EU citizen who wants to work in the UK:

4. The EU is best described as:

7. The UK's role in the rest of the world

Specification point 7 · Key question: Does the UK have power and influence in the wider world?

Conflict & CooperationPower & AuthorityIdentity & Belonging

You need to know

The role of the UK within the United Nations, NATO, the Commonwealth and the World Trade Organisation.
The benefits and commitments that come from membership of each.

Organisation	What it is	The UK's role	Benefits	Commitments
United Nations	Founded in 1945 to keep peace. 193 member states.	One of five permanent members of the Security Council, with a veto.	Influence over world decisions. Cooperation on problems no country can solve alone.	Pay towards the UN budget. Contribute to peacekeeping. Follow the UN Charter.
NATO	A military alliance of 32 countries, founded in 1949.	A founding member with one of the largest defence budgets.	Collective security: an attack on one is treated as an attack on all (Article 5).	Defend other members. Meet agreed targets for defence spending.
The Commonwealth	A voluntary association of 56 countries, most once part of the British Empire.	The King is its Head. The UK is a leading funder.	Trade and cultural links. A source of soft power.	Uphold the values of the Commonwealth Charter, such as democracy and human rights.
World Trade Organisation	Sets the rules for trade between countries and settles disputes. Founded in 1995.	A founding member. Since leaving the EU it negotiates for itself.	UK exports must be treated fairly. The UK can bring a complaint against unfair trade.	Follow the rules. Do not treat one trading partner better than another without a trade deal.

UN bodies and agencies

The General Assembly: every member has one vote.
The Security Council: can impose sanctions and authorise the use of force.
Agencies include UNICEF (children), UNHCR (refugees), the World Health Organisation and the World Food Programme.

Countries use hard power (military and economic force) and soft power (attraction and persuasion) to get what they want.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. Article 5 of the NATO treaty says that:

2. The UK's power to block a UN Security Council decision is called a:

3. Which organisation settles trade disputes between countries?

4. How many countries are members of the Commonwealth?

8. Rights and responsibilities in challenging global situations

Specification point 8 · Key question: Does the UK have power and influence in the wider world?

Conflict & CooperationRights & ResponsibilitiesJustice & Fairness

You need to know

How international law protects victims of conflict, and how international humanitarian law sets the rules of war.
The role of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in responding to humanitarian crises.
How the UK has helped to resolve international disputes and conflicts through mediation, sanctions and force.

The rules of war

International humanitarian law limits how wars are fought. Its core is the four Geneva Conventions of 1949.

Civilians must not be targeted.
Wounded and sick soldiers must be cared for.
Prisoners of war must be treated humanely.
Medical staff, hospitals and aid workers must be protected.
Breaking these rules is a war crime. The International Criminal Court in The Hague can try individuals for war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.

The role of NGOs

An NGO is independent of government. In a humanitarian crisis, NGOs:

Deliver emergency humanitarian aid: food, clean water, shelter and medical care.
Stay to help communities rebuild.
Raise money and public awareness. In the UK, the Disasters Emergency Committee runs joint appeals, as it did for Ukraine in 2022.
Report on human rights abuses and press governments to act.
Examples: the British Red Cross, Oxfam, Save the Children, Médecins Sans Frontières.

How the UK helps to resolve conflict

Method	What it means	UK example
Mediation	Bringing the sides together to negotiate a peaceful agreement.	The UK was one of the countries that negotiated the 2015 agreement limiting Iran's nuclear programme.
Sanctions	Penalties such as trade bans and freezing assets, to pressure a country to change.	Sanctions on Russian banks, businesses and individuals after the invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
Force	Military action, used as a last resort.	RAF air strikes against Daesh (Islamic State) in Iraq from 2014. NATO action in Libya in 2011, authorised by the UN.

Method	Strength	Weakness
Mediation	Peaceful and cheap. An agreed settlement is more likely to last.	Slow. Fails if either side refuses to compromise.
Sanctions	Applies pressure without fighting.	Can hurt ordinary people more than leaders. Other countries may not join in.
Force	Can stop an attack quickly.	Costs lives and money. Can make a conflict worse.

Quick check

Answer from memory before you look back at your notes.

1. The Geneva Conventions are part of:

2. Freezing the assets of a country's banks is an example of:

3. Which court can try individuals for war crimes?

4. Which of these is an NGO?

9. Exam practice

Theme D is tested in Paper 2. Section B asks you to comment on other people's citizenship actions, and Section C tests Theme D, including one question that links to Themes A to C. Type your answer first, then compare it with the model.

1 and 2-mark questions: recall

1. Name the organisation that regulates most newspapers in the UK. (1 mark)

2. Give two forms of direct action. (2 marks)

3. State two roles of the media in a democracy. (2 marks)

4. Name two international organisations the UK belongs to. (2 marks)

5. Give two methods a country can use to help resolve an international conflict. (2 marks)

6. State one right and one responsibility of the media. (2 marks)

4-mark questions: explain

1. Explain two ways in which trade unions support workers. (4 marks)

2. Explain two differences between the European Union and the Council of Europe. (4 marks)

3. Explain two barriers to citizen participation in politics. (4 marks)

4. Explain two ways in which NGOs respond to a humanitarian crisis. (4 marks)

6-mark source question and 15-mark essay

1. Source D. Residents of Mill Lane want a pedestrian crossing outside their primary school after two accidents. Group A started an online petition, which gained 1,200 signatures, and met their local councillor. The council said it would "review the road next year". Group B blocked the road with banners at school pick-up time for a week. The protest was reported on regional television, but some parents complained about the delays.

Using Source D and your own knowledge, explain which group's methods are more likely to succeed. (6 marks)

2. "A free press does more than Parliament to hold the government to account." How far do you agree? (15 marks)

Question to ask	Why it matters
Who produced it?	A council, a newspaper and a campaign group may each present the same facts differently.
Why was it produced?	A source that wants to persuade you may be biased.
When was it produced?	Old figures may no longer be true.
Can it be checked?	A reliable source gives evidence that other sources confirm.

Method	Good for	Limitation
Questionnaire or survey	Collecting many responses quickly.	Answers may be brief. The sample may not represent everyone.
Interview	Detailed views from an expert or decision-maker.	Takes time. Gives only one person's view.
Observation or count	Recording what actually happens, such as how many people use a facility.	Shows what happens, not why.
Focus group	Exploring opinions in depth.	A few confident people can dominate.

	What it is	Example
Quantitative data	Numbers that can be counted and shown in charts.	"72% of students have used the youth club."
Qualitative data	Words that describe opinions and experiences.	"It is the only place I can go after school."
Closed questions	Offer a fixed choice of answers. Easy to count.	"Have you used the youth club this year? Yes / No"
Open questions	Let people answer in their own words.	"What would you miss if the club closed?"

Stakeholder in the sample project	Likely viewpoint
Young people who use the club	It is a safe place to meet. Closing it leaves nothing to do.
Parents and local residents	Most support the club. Some neighbours complain about noise.
The council	Its budget has been cut, and it must protect services it is required by law to provide.
Youth workers	Their jobs are at risk. They see the difference the club makes.
Local police	Youth clubs may help to reduce anti-social behaviour.

Kind	What it is	Examples
Campaigning and advocacy	Trying to raise awareness or persuade decision-makers to change something.	A petition to the council. An assembly to change students' attitudes.
Social action	Doing something practical that benefits others. Also called direct service.	Running a collection for a food bank. Organising a community litter-pick.

Method	Best for	Drawback
Petition	Showing decision-makers how many people agree.	Easy to sign, so easy to ignore unless numbers are large.
Writing letters or emails	Putting a detailed case to a named person.	May receive only a standard reply.
Lobbying	Meeting a councillor, MP or headteacher face to face.	Hard to arrange. Needs good preparation.
Posters, leaflets and assemblies	Raising awareness in school or the local area.	People may not act on what they see.
Online campaign, website or short film	Reaching many people quickly, especially the young.	Needs careful supervision. Hard to measure real support.
Demonstration or publicity stunt	Gaining attention from the media.	Needs permission. May annoy the people you want to persuade.

Skill	What it looks like	Sample project
Collaboration	Sharing tasks, listening, supporting each other and meeting deadlines.	Two students ran the petition while two prepared the presentation.
Negotiation	Negotiating means discussing to reach an agreement both sides can accept.	The team accepted shorter opening hours in return for the club staying open.
Influence	Persuading people with evidence, clear arguments and the right tone.	The team showed councillors the survey results and a short film of members' stories.

Question	Sample project
Did we meet our success criteria?	We collected 340 signatures against a target of 300, and we met a councillor.
What was the impact?	The council kept the club open two evenings a week. That is partial success: it had been open four.
What worked well, and why?	The survey evidence was persuasive because it showed how many young people used the club.
What did not work, and why?	Our social media posts reached few adults. We should have used the local newspaper.
What would we do differently?	Start earlier, and contact councillors before the budget was drafted.
What did I learn?	How council decisions are made, and how to present an argument to people in power.

Every GCSE Citizenship topic, explained out loud.

The four themes

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Theme A: Living Together in the UK

Theme B: Democracy at Work

Theme C: How the Law Works

Theme D: Power and Influence